TSU-TI — THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES

Ecclesiastical Politics of Leonid Brezhnev: 1965-1982

2022-05-07T14:13:38+04:00

The religious policy of the Soviet government is particularly urgent in modern Georgian, Russian and Western scientific literature. Special investigations, aimed at the study of the state of religious organizations in the Soviet Union and, particularly, of the Orthodox Church, are being developed. It is noteworthy that alarge part of the existing research includes the study of the ecclesiastical policy of the Soviet government in the 20s and 60s of the last century. Only in recent monographs do we find attempts of the scientific study of the relationship between church and state in the Soviet Union of the 1970s and 1980s. The study of religious policy issues of the Soviet period is being successfully conducted in Georgian scientific reality, however, the chronological framework of the research herein only includes the period of 20-60s of the XX century. More specifically, the upper limit of this period is defined to be the final years of Nikita Khrushchev’s rule, namely the first half of the 1960s. Less attention is paid to (and is actually not investigated) Leonid Brezhnev’s ecclesiastical policy and its development tendencies.The aim of our paper is to elucidate the bases of the ecclesiastical policy of the Soviet government during the rule of Leonid Brezhnev, its main aspects, domestic and foreign factors and the consequences of their influence; to analyze and evaluate the works of modern Russian, European, American and Georgian historiography, written and visual historical sources and published and unpublished archival documents.In terms of research methodology, the work is based on historical cognitive, content analysis, historical-typological, comparative, biographical, retrospective, historical-genetic and systematic research methods, which needless to say envisages a comprehensive historical study of the historical sources around the issue; it is also an attempt to restore the images of historical past.

The results of the research can be chronologically divided into 2 stages:

A) The ecclesiastical policy of Leonid Brezhnev from the second half of the 1960s to the second half of the 1970s;
B) The ecclesiastical policy of Leonid Brezhnev from the second half of the 1970s to 1982.

Each stage is characterized by different tendencies, internal and external challenges, orientations and results that the Soviet Union used to face. For example, if at the beginning of his rule Leonid Brezhnev’s government considered it a priority to condemn Nikita Khrushchev’s repressive ecclesiastical policies and to take a relatively compromising approach to relations with religious organizations, from the second half of the 1970s, under the intensification of the dissident movement, the rapprochement of the society with the Church, and the success of Western states diplomacy, the chosen course was being changed and Brezhnev’s sophisticated policies became more radical and rigid. The transformation of the form (and not the content) of the ecclesiastical policy of the government was obviously preconditioned by certain reasons and was serving the respective purposes. In the paper, we discuss the above-mentioned reasons, goals, measures taken by the official authorities in the field of religion, both at the legislative and social levels, and the way of transforming its course from the second half of the 60s to the beginning of the 80s. Naturally, it is impossible to settle this complex issue within one paper, however, we think that this research will contribute to the development of further studies in Georgian scientific world.

Autonomous Political Economies: winemakers, national heritage, and the ethnographic mapping of geopolitics in the Republic of Georgia

2022-05-07T14:20:42+04:00

More than merely grapes go into the production of Georgian wine. For the Republic of Georgia, wine bottles up layers of identity and filters out oppressive, imperial histories of invasion, war, and occupation. My anthropological and ethnographic project is interested in how the Georgian wine supply chain — from tending vines, through production, onto the bottles' labels, and into the hands (and mouths) of tourists—simultaneously produces Georgian identities autonomous from a historical Russianness. As Georgians negotiate the reconceptualization of their identity amidst ongoing occupation and within a post-Soviet, postimperial context, they reconstruct a market of wine commodities. Wine and identity have historical embodiment in the land, which transfers to grapes, bottled and sold on domestic and international markets. Wines are labeled with, and as, symbols of heritage, telling stories of Georgia’s tumultuous history. As conflicts, both historic and futuristic, political and environmental, continue to press upon Georgian borders, its people unceasingly negotiate their identities through grapes, vines, wines, and bottles. My fieldwork in Tbilisi and Georgia’s winemaking regions encompasses various anthropological methodologies, data analysis from Geographic Information Systems, and considerations of Heritage Studies to explore the layering of wine landscapes as commodity networks that tell a story of Georgian heritage. I utilize cartography to trace diverging wine supply chains, that encompass traditional and industrial forms of viticulture and aim to visualize how these economic networks embody different political economic identities. Following the Georgian “Wine Trail,” I document how heritage is portrayed throughout Georgia, how winemakers articulate identities, and how these might be at work with larger geopolitical tensions. While framed in the post-Soviet historical context, my project shifts the lens to a contemporary Georgian market to understand how geopolitical and geoeconomics considerations impact the Georgian wine economy. My work is interdisciplinary, exploring the intersection of environmental and political histories, with the contemporary frames of political economy and ecology, through archeological methodologies of heritage studies. My research project unpacks how Georgians associate their national heritage through a supposedly mundane object—wine—to show how Georgian nationality and Georgian wine are indeed the best pairing.

The Religious Toleration Policy of the Mongols and its Diplomatic Significance for Relations with the Holy See in the Thirteenth Century

2022-05-07T14:22:49+04:00

The appearance of the Mongols on the international arena was met with mixed reactions. The Catholic world was no exception. In the West, the fact that the Mongols put an end to the Muslim, Khwarazm Shahs state was positive towards the new people, and they thought about creating a joint anti-Muslim coalition. Nevertheless, of course, there were serious doubts about the identity and intentions of the Mongols. In this article, we will try to find out what is the phenomenon of "Pax Mongolica" and its causes are. What is the role of religious tolerance policy for Mongols, in relations with the Catholic world? In addition, the purpose of the article is to explain the mission of Georgia in regulational process of the Union between Vatican and the Mongol Empire. XIII century is time of major changes in the international politics. We believe that its fundamental study, especially in the context of such a special issue for the modern society, as a religious tolerance is, will be useful not only for Georgian, but also for non-Georgian historiography. For the purposes of the article, the research used mainly the historical-system method. In addition, historical-comparative and critical methods of analyzing sources will be used. Using the hermeneutical method, we studied the reliability of the information provided in the source, the mentality of the authors of the source and the purpose of its creation. The scientific novelty of the article can be considered not only a new interpretation of the reason for religious tolerance of the Mongols, but also the definition and assessment of the role of Georgia in relations between the Tatars and the Vatican. The study concludes that the religious tolerance of the Mongols was dictated not only by religious, but also by political, trade and economic motives. Their tolerant policy confused the Catholic world: the West hoped to eventually practice the Catholic religion in the Ilkhan and the Golden Horde. At the same time, the Vatican and Hulaguians had a common enemy - the Sultanate of Egypt. Accordingly, these factors contributed to the establishment of friendly relations between them. As for the second Mongol state, the Ulus of Jochi, the peaceful coexistence between them and the Catholic world was mainly due to economic factors. Georgia- a vassal of the Ilkhanate, which, despite its split, maintained good relations with the Vatican, automatically became a mediator between the two allies. Thus, the religious policy of the Mongols further simplified relations with the West and the conquered people. "Pax Mongolica" contributed not only to the long existence of the conquered people in the Empire, but also to the deepening of trade and economic relations between the West and the East.

Urbanism Under Turco-Mongol Rule: Excavations at Otrar, Kazakhstan

2022-05-07T15:14:50+04:00

The city of Otrar in southern Kazakhstan (42°51'8.64"N/ 68°18'9.26"E; (Figure 1) was occupied from around the 4^th-5^th century AD and abandoned in the 18^th century (Akishev, Baipakov, and Erzakovich 1972:81, 1981, 1987; Baipakov 1990). Exploiting the waters of the nearby Syr Darya river to create a fertile hinterland which supported the urban population (Clarke, Sala, and Meseth 2005; Toonen et al. 2020), written sources indicate it was the location of major historical events from the Mongol Conquest to the death of Timur (Bregel 2003:36, 42; Juvaini (trans. J. Boyle) 1997:82–85; Rashid al-Din (trans a. W.M. Thackston) 2012:170–71; f488-90; Zimin’ 1914). Today, the site consists of a raised mound or shahristan known as Otrartobe, an 18m tall mound of decayed mudbrick architecture and occupation deposits within a larger urban zone covering around 170 hectares (Akishev et al. 1972:43–50; Fodde, Sala, and Deom 2013). The site has been extensively excavated (Akishev et al. 1972, 1981, 1987; Akylbek 2013; Baipakov 2013; Baipakov and Erzakovich 1991; Campbell 2020, 2021) with ample information about various neighbourhoods, and broad chronological understanding of the character of occupation. Abandonment deposits have been found and equated to the Mongol Conquest but the stratification of the coin hoard used to date this phase was somewhat unclear (Akishev et al. 1987:18) and so the precise chronology of occupation at Otrar and the extent to which it was continuously inhabited remains obscure. The work described here presents an initial attempt to further investigate the complex sequence of occupation at the site between the 12^th and 14^th centuries.

Pontos Limes: Romans in Eastern Black Sea Region

2022-05-07T15:23:47+04:00

The Ponto-Caucasian frontier defence system began function after the modernization-reorganization of the entire eastern defensive line by Vespasian (69-79). 72-76 significant forces began moving on the entire regions of the Roman Empire eastern borders. Created by Vespasian, the Cappadocian complex, which included Colchis, received two legions. These legions were stationed on the Cappadocia-Little Armenia line, at Satala and Melitene.In Melitene was stationed the Legio XII Fulminata (Lightning) transferred from Syria, and in Satala the newly formed XVI Flavia Firma, which later been replaced by the Legio XV Apollinaris. Satala and Melitene were considered as part of Cappadocia and, from a military-strategic point of view, the main distribution base of Roman forces in the Caucasus under the Cappadocian Legation. To the south of Melitene was beginning the Syrian Limes. Trabzon was the Rome's hub and the military-economic center in eastern black sea region. From 64 AD it became the main center of the Roman garrison - Classic Pontica. Trabzon get to be starting point of the Roman defence system - the Ponto-Caucasus border line, which included the castellums of Hisos, Rize, Athena, Apsarus, Phasis, and Sebastopolis.Until the middle of the 2nd century, the Ponto-Caucasian border line extended only to Sebastopolis. But between the years 132-152, the area of this defence system expanded to Pitsunda. The material and technical provision of the castellums located on the Ponto-Caucasus line was carried out from Trabzon.It is known that the Romans built temporary wooden fortifications before the construction of permanent, long-lasting castles, ’Pilum Murale’. We assume that it is possible the Romans built the same temporary wooden fortification in Apsarus as Flavius Arian (95-175 AD) mentions in Phasis. According to recent studies the construction of a permanent, long-term fortress in Apsarus begun in second half of I century. The Apsarus castle over the next two centuries was one of the most significant military centres in eastern Black sea region. During the reign of Hadrian (117-138), as Ariane describes, a permanent ‘Castella Murata’ type defensive structure was already functioning in Apsarus, with five cohorts stationed there.The presence of such a significant military force in Apsarus was due to its strategical circumstance. The fort was a main crossroads from the Colchis lowlands to the interior of East Asia Minor and, at the same time, closed the coastline. Its main function was to prevent the nomads of the North Caucasus and to Roman provinces of Minor Asia. The geostrategic importance of Apsarus increased even more from 20-s of second century, when kingdom of Iberia conquered a part of the Colchis coast. Through the Ponto-Caucasian border defence system, which successfully maintain military and economic stability in the region until the middle of the 3rd century. The attacks of the North Caucasian nomads on the Colchis and other Roman provinces ceased; Piracy and robbery were prevented; the security of the distant provinces of the empire was ensured and the local tribes also came under the real control of Rome.From the beginning of the 4th century, the Roman border defence system, damaged by the barbarians, was renewed in the Eastern Black Sea region with its usual force, and its functioning lasted until the second half of the 4th century.

Phasis From Arabs to the Russian Empire (Review of the Written Sources)

2022-05-07T15:27:29+04:00

No Abstract

The Use of Psychology as Strategy in Hybrid Warfare

2022-05-07T15:52:24+04:00

The term Political War or Hybrid warfare is not new, Clausewitz and Kennan have already talked about it in the past as the use of all means available to the State actors and not State actor to create instability in an opposing State. Political warfare has the characteristic of using a certain level of violence that remains underneath conventional conflict. It is definition dates back to 1948, and it is the use of all means available to a Country, excluding war, to achieve their goals - the US State Department used a definition at the beginning of the Cold War - which we find today in a global competition context. Starting from the 90s, the concept of threat has taken on less and less definable forms and still less connection to purely military actions. The actors that resort to the hybrid threat are also less identifiable, which can be stated entities but also non-state entities such as terrorism. The hybrid threat could be considered as the combined and synergistic use of different tools of power available to the States, or a non-States, (non-States actors), and these tools can be, military, diplomatic, political, technological, intelligence, economic - financial, media and psychological. Some of these tools are obviously, while others are hidden, others are military, but most of them are non-military instruments, such as propaganda, disinformation, psychological warfare (psyops - psychological operations), cyberattacks, support for specific movements or political parties in another country. After quickly introducing what is meant by Hybrid Warfare or Hybrid Threat I would like to enter into the heart of the subject by talking about the use of psychological warfare as a military technique different from war, or a nonmilitary warfare action, in declared conflicts and undeclared conflicts. The psychological element has always been of primary importance in the conflicts. For this reason, I would like to speak about the use of psychological warfare as a technique within the hybrid conflict, also discuss the other psychological warfare tools and their use. These instruments are the psyops operations, the cognitive and communicative war, and the last point that would like to treat is the use of psychological warfare techniques through social media and the propaganda. This contribution of mine provide to suggest a theoretical and practical reflection on the new hybrid war strategies and analysing how ancient military tactics already being consciously readapted and strengthened through the use of new technologies.

The Concept of Pax Russica, Russian Strategic Narratives and their Possible Impact on Populist Movements and the Russophone Community in Estonia

2022-05-07T15:56:58+04:00

In recent years, the Russian Federation has increased its aggressive rhetoric and information campaigns against the Baltic states as they identify these countries among the most vulnerable part of the West, which may be potentially handled by the Kremlin as a potential target audience for information and influence operations in their status conflict with the West. Moreover, the tools of information and influence operations of Russian Federation include all kinds of intimidation and manipulation techniques from cyber-attacks to political extortion among others. The research focuses on studying political influence Russia expectedly pursues through strategic narratives that find their way to reaching target audience. The research is primarily based on media analysis of Estonian media outlets in Estonian and Russian language and on structured interviews with various political figures and experts, opinion leaders, and representatives of Russophone community in Estonia.Probably the most fundamental idea of the modern state philosophy of the Russian Federation is the concept of the ‘Pax Russica’ (Russian World), which has been intensively developed during the last decade, promoted by abundant PR companies and information campaigns for the Russian-speaking internal and external audiences in mass media, social media, but also in popular and scientific literature. The concept of ‘Pax Russica’ has been used by Russian political elites as an ideological tool to unite all Russian-speaking people worldwide and to create a global Russian-speaking cultural, ideological, historical, social, political, economic and informational space as a powerful alternative to the Soviet Union or the Russian Empire. The concept of ‘Pax Russica’ is closely related to the compatriots policy of the Russian Federation, in which Russia has declared that its duty is protect Russian-speaking people not only in Russia, but also abroad.Russian-speaking population makes up 26-27% of the Estonian 1,300,000 population, and approximately 80% of them live in two counties: Harjumaa (including capital Tallinn) and Ida-Virumaa (northeast of Estonia) and it has been a valuable target for information and influence operations coming from Russia. The Russophone audience in Estonia constantly receives messages and narratives from Russia’s media channels, many of them promote negative perceptions against the West (e.g., about the "immorality" of the West, about "misdeeds" and "aggression" of NATO), stoking up the fear of migrants and refugees and other harmful narratives that break down positive images related to European identity, values and security architecture. What is characteristic to the Russian strategic narratives, these tend to be rather destructive, with the aim to destroy their potential adversary than to promote positive images on Russia. Besides the Russian-speaking community, Russia often targets various populist movements in Europe (also in Estonia) from left to right, etc. Russia pretends to protect, and promote worship against liberalism.

The Defining role of the Communist Party for the Social and Political Processes: Setting up the Reasons

2022-05-07T16:00:24+04:00

In the present Research, based on the study and analysis of archival materials, there is presented the social and political situation in Adjara region in the 30s of the 20th century.

A number of archival materials in the study are entering scientific literature for the first time. During the research period, new details were revealed, which clearly present the difficult political situation that existed during the period of the "Great Terror" in Adjara. Critical analysis of the history of the given period is very relevant for the further state development of independent Georgia. Reassessing the Soviet past is one of the most important issues for modern Georgian historiography. Our goal is to make a modest contribution to this cause. The The work discusses the importance of the role of the Communist Party. The difficult political situation in the region is established on the basis of archival materials. The presented research study discusses the decisions made at the conferences of the local organization of the local Communist Party on the process of rural collectivization, as well as the issue of cleansing the party of "unreliable elements" and others.

A Historical Sketch of the Idea of Caucasian Unity and Common Defense Arrangements

2022-05-07T16:03:22+04:00

In this presentation I will provide a preliminary sketch of the idea of Caucasian political unity and common defense arrangements within the Caucasian intellectual tradition. The presentation covers the concepts of centralization, decentralization, confederalism, federalism and regionalism as expressed in the tradition of political thought in the region from the ancient and medieval to the modern period. For the ancient period, I will briefly reference certain recorded tribal alliances or joint defense arrangements, however temporary they may have been. For the medieval period, we will look at the way medieval Georgians perceived the ideal relationship between the different Caucasian nations. For the modern period, we will look at various attempts to mount a regional resistance or stage a regional uprising against the Imperial Russian or Soviet forces as well as review the debates for and against a regional federation for the Caucasus between 1860 and 1921.

The Soldier and Education in the First Republic of Georgia: 1918-1921

2022-05-07T16:08:05+04:00

The establishment of the capitalist system contributed to the formation of new social classes: the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. The removal of serfdom significantly changed the political, social, and economic system. New demands and cha-llenges have emerged in the new environment. Not only the proletariat and the bourgeoisie but the whole society underwent fundamental transformations. Especially since the national liberation movement in Europe in the XIX century was quite strong, which led to the formation of nation-states. Georgia perceived these changes differ-rently. As an occupied part of the Russian Empire, it was naturally influenced by the ongoing events there. While the process of nation-building was underway in Europe, Georgia was looking for new ways to fight for freedom. The Georgian cultural and political elite, via raising public awareness, tried to create a common Georgian space and involve all social strata equally in the struggle for independence. This process was in progress from 1918-1921. Therefore, it is important to raise a point and analyze how the process of the national movement was manifested. The period of the First Republic is one of the most difficult periods in the history of Georgia. On the one hand, the ideological forms of the national movement were being formed and developed, the primary expression of which was an educated society, aware of the history of its own country. As it has been already mentioned, the process of the national-liberation movement starting from the 50s of the XIX century was aimed at the formation of an educated and conscious society imbued with the national idea. The logical continuation of these processes was the current events of 1918-1921. Independent Georgia took the path to the West and its goal was the Europeanization of various spheres of the country, and among them, a special place was occupied by the education factor. The starting point of the Georgian authorities was to transform the Georgian army, not only from a military-professional point of view but also they aimed to raise their educational and national consciousness. Before that, i.e. until 1918, such a thing was unimaginable for the Georgian soldiers, who were the main backbone of the Russian imperial court and the executor of its will. The national government, in turn, focused primarily on strengthening the soldier's national self-awareness

One of the Less Studied Issue of the „League of Militant Atheists“ (Struggle Against Christmas)

2022-05-07T16:10:31+04:00

At the present stage, the complex study of Soviet politics is of particular importance in both Georgian and Russian and Western historiography, where the direction of Soviet religious policy occupies a prominent place, as it becomes quite clear that without proper analysis it is practically impossible to understand Soviet ideology, domestic or foreign policy. Some important and fundamental issues.In the study of Soviet religious policy, it is natural to pay special attention to the "League of Militant Atheists" organization, in connection with which a number of events carried out by the Soviet authorities.Although the establishment of the League of Militant Atheists, the specifics of its work, the main directions and some important features are well studied in Georgian, Russian and Western historiography, there are some issues that are less studied, but their analysis is given special attention. Should be given.In this paper, we intend to explore one specific direction of the “League of Militant Atheists” in the struggle against Christian holidays, namely Christmas. We will try to analyze what the Soviet authorities intended in this direction, how they tried to achieve the desired result.The urgency of the research problem is determined by several facts, in particular, first of all, as mentioned above, this issue belongs to the category of less scientifically studied, in addition, proper study of the Soviet past is necessary at the present stage. Rooted in the worldview of society, this is why the study of Soviet ideological policy should be given a special place, where the attitude of the communist government towards religion and the church should be given a special place.In the paper we have studied the specific practical or ideological policies adopted by the Soviet authorities towards the Christian holidays, what expression it had, what measures were taken in this direction. Special attention will be paid to such an important issue as the directive from the central government on how it was implemented in Russia and what peculiarities of expression it had in the Georgian reality

The Early Bronze age cultural sequence: New investigations in Adigeni Municipality (Samtskhe Region, South-west Georgia)

2022-05-07T16:14:15+04:00

Archaeological excavations in the Samtskhe region in recent years have revealed many important discoveries, which in turn, significantly increased our knowledge of the prehistory of the Caucasus region in general. However, the results rose new questions related to various issues, mainly concerning the sequence of cultures and their relationship.In 2020, Archaeological excavations at the Irmis Rka settlement have revealed the layers of Kura-Araxes and Bedeni cultures and demonstrated a clear stratigraphic picture of how the Kura-Araxes deposit is covered by the layer of following Bedeni culture. Such continuity at one site is quite rare for Georgian archaeology – similar evidence has been confirmed at the few sites, but for the first time in southwest Georgia. This data provides an opportunity to investigate socio-cultural changes in the region during the 3rd millennium BC.Even though there is a chronological gap between Kura-Araxes and Bedeni cultures according to radiocarbon dates, archaeological data, such as architecture and artifacts highlight some connections between these cultures, which should be a reflection of the continuation of traditions.

Stamp Seals in and out of Georgia

2022-05-07T16:16:37+04:00

In this abstract I will shortly discuss the Late Bronze-Early Iron Age clay seals, mostly stamps which have been discovered on the territory of Georgia and also their analogues. I have started to investigate this issue on my master and on that stage of study I had done catalogue, classification and the research of the given materials. As a PhD dissertation I am planning to finish the study of the Late Bronze-Early Iron Age Georgian Clay seals.As it is seen from the study of the Late Bronze-Early Iron Age Georgian seals in most cases their surface depicts the ornamental motives which were very spread in the other ancient cultures in different periods, but at the same time some of the depictions are local. As it is known societies which had been living on the territory of Georgia had intercultural and trade relations with different cultures, such as Anatolian, Aegean, and Mediterranean, near Eastern and so on. And these relations could be seen on different materials discovered during the archaeological excavations. As I have already mentioned Georgian seals depictions have parallels in different ancient cultures from Europe to Indus valley. Before appearing in Georgia stamp seals had been spread in some other ancient cultures earlier. Probably this type of seals had been entered on the territory of Georgia from these cultures. One of the main goals of my works is to find out from which culture, with which way and when it started to distribute stamp seals on the territory of Georgia. to research this issue, I use some methods. For example: I compare Georgian seals with its analogues and also, I mark the discovery places of its analogues on the map chronologically. This will help me to define the distribution territories of this kind of the seals and its spreading routs, moreover, I will be able to see from which territory were distributed stamp seals on the territory of Georgia. It is true that the seals played a very important role in this period people’s everyday life because they have been found at almost all Georgian significant archaeological sites. unfortunately, there exists many vague facts about Late Bronze-Early Iron Age Georgian archaeology. So, studying this kind of important materials will clear up some of the undefined issues about this period Georgia too. the fact that Georgian seals finds many analogues among the ancient worlds seals grows this artifacts importance, and it is evident that Georgian seals must be studied among the other cultures’ seals.

Bartmann Jugs from Tbilisi — Import and Local Imitations of the German Stoneware in Georgia

2022-05-07T16:19:25+04:00

Tbilisi is archaeologically one of the least studied sites in Georgia as it always was a densely populated area throughout its presence. Therefore, every single archaeological discovery from Tbilisi deserves much attention. A significant group of the artefacts (vessels) was discovered in Gudiashvili Square (Old Tbilisi) in the context of an archaeological treasure – deliberately hidden in one of the Kvevri in the 18 th -19 th century wine cellar. These vessels must have been produced in the same ceramic workshop due to the similarity of their ornamentation and shapes. Bearded man face mask depicted on the vessels categorizes them in the group of the pottery known as Bartmann/Bellarmine jugs (Bartmanner in German means bearded man). Bartmann jugs are one of the most popular group of the ‘Rhenish Stoneware’ – ceramics made in Central Europe (Germany) and distributed worldwide throughout the 16^th -18^th centuries. Bartmann jugs from Gudiashvili Square, with the parallels from another archaeological sites of Tbilisi, is believed to be locally produced imitations of the original vessels imported from Europe. Import and local imitations of the Bartmann jugs from the territory of Georgia are capable of drawing a very important picture of trade networks between the kingdom of Kartli/Georgia and Europe in 17^th -18^th centuries.

Understanding the Evidence for the Silk Roads in Georgia and its Perspective

2022-05-07T16:25:20+04:00

The research aims to reassess the values and cultural significance associated with Gremi, the capital of the vanished Kingdom of Kakheti (Georgia), through deconstructing its biography. In doing so, it aims to understand to what extent Gremi as a historical landscape can meet the criteria for the UNESCO Silk Roads Transnational Serial World Heritage nomination as opposed to nominating some of its architectural buildings as a single property. Since 2005 the idea of Transnational World Heritage Nominations, which involve properties presented by a State Party whose heritage is under-represented has become one of the measures for the establishment of the Representative, Balanced, and Credible World Heritage List. In this context, after a decade of work, the Silk Roads World Heritage Transnational and Serial Nomination project has developed. The nomination envisages inclusion of trading cities, caravanserais, inns, military posts, garrison stations, natural and cultural landmarks, and industrial/production sites from different countries linked by an overarching concept of the Silk Roads. The nomination project has already gained currency in the political and cultural agenda of the countries along the historic route. In 2014 the World Heritage Committee at its 38th session inscribed the first Silk Roads transboundary serial property The Routes Network of Chang' an-Tian Shan Corridor on the World Heritage List, which encompasses 33 component sites in three countries, China, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. Other corridors including Penjikent-Samarkand-Poykent-Merv Zarafshan Heritage Corridor (Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan), the South Asian Silk Roads (China, India, Nepal and Bhutan), and the Fergana-Syrdarya Silk Roads Heritage Corridor (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan) are underway, along with the initiatives to explore the corridors to the West. In the increasingly globalized world, cultural heritage is recognized not only of national but potentially international importance too. The values ascribed to the place determines the significance of each heritage site. The deconstruction of Gremi's biography showcases its prospective international potential in a somewhat different way than the State Party features it on the Tentative List of the World Heritage Programme. The archaeological studies of Gremi and the principles of cultural heritage management is a framework for this study. The qualitative method is employed to understand the evidence for the Silk Roads in Gremi. The research maps Gremi-Shamakhi-Ardebil Silk Route using computer programme Google Earth. The biographical approach to Gremi's landscape makes apparent that focusing predominantly on the best-preserved parts of Gremi, such as the church of Archangels and the adjoining royal tower, considerably limits the representation and expression of the very essence of the place. Alternatively, framing Gremi as an outcome of the Silk Roads makes it possible to tell a fuller and richer story about it, enabling to capture all the values one might ascribe to, including the symbolic, historical and archaeological.

Byzantine Influence on the Village Otkhta Monastic Church in Tao-Klarjeti

2022-05-07T16:28:02+04:00

Klarjeti is one of the historical Georgian regions covering the Artvin province today. In the historical process, it was mentioned together with the Tao region, which includes the Erzurum environs. When evaluated as a whole, the Tao-Klarjeti region covers the north of Erzurum and the provinces of Artvin, Ardahan and Kars. In the Middle Ages, under the leadership of the Georgian Bagratid Dynasty, the Klarceti-centered Tao-Klarjeti Kingdom was established. The Kingdom had close relations with both the political formations in the region and the local governments. The works of art, embodied in this cultural atmosphere, carried traces of both local styles and the dominant culture of the region. The dominant culture in the region has been Byzantium for many years. Even in the beginning, Georgians accepted Christianity by a Byzantine nun and in a short time came under Byzantine influence in terms of religion, politics and culture. Therefore, it is undoubtedly inevitable to see Byzantine influences in works of art in such an intense cultural environment. Othta Monastery Church, which is one of these works, reflects the Byzantine influences to a great extent, as well as carrying local influences. Many researchers think that the monastery was built in the late 9th and early 10th centuries. It is possible to see the Byzantine influence in the monastery church, especially in the plan, facade layout and materials used.In the study, the building was evaluated in terms of plan, architecture, ornament, material and technique and compared with Byzantine works. The Byzantine influences determined in the comparisons will be evaluated together with the historical data. As a result, the subject discussed is very important in terms of the fact that the Byzantine-Georgian relations of the region are examined for the first time in terms of art.

Mashaveras Gora: New Investigation of Shulaveri-Shomutepe culture Neolithic Settlement

2022-05-07T16:30:47+04:00

Archaeological excavations at Mashaveras Gora (Bolnisi municipality, Kvemo Kartli, Georgia) were carried out in 2020-2021 archaeological season by a Georgian National Museum team. The Mashaveras Gora settlement belongs to the Shulaveri-Shomutepe Neolithic culture. With its location of confluence of two main river Khrami and Mashavera the mound appears to be one of the main settlements of South Caucasus Neolithic life. Discovery of Mashaveras Gora is related to the Soviet farm building. Short period excavation was carried out in 1988 by D. Gogelia. Since that the site was abandoned until now. The 2020-2021 excavation goal was to renew archaeological excavation on the Mashaveras Gora. The results of archaeological investigation gave us opportunity to shed a light on new architectural building tradition, which is quite different from typical Shulaveri-Shomutepe Neolithic architecture. Excavations focused on the north part of the settlement, where was excavated nine trenches, also in the west side of the mound with two new trenches for the stratigraphy of the mound. Neolithic rounded houses with its small storage buildings and several fragments of walls had been documented. Also, significant number of archaeological materials belonging to the neolithic activity. New investigated site provides material on Neolithic society practices in everyday life in the Southern Caucasus, as well as ritualistic concepts and perspectives.

Innovative Significance of Research of Traditional Architectural Features of Ganja

2022-05-07T16:33:40+04:00

Ganja - an ancient center of urban culture with old history, that situated on the old Great Silk way, is rich with many historical and material-cultural monuments, which have their typical, unique trade and architectural characteristics. This city has more than 4000 years old and here there is one of the main and ancient historical monuments of Muslim East civilization – Imamzadeh tomb, Jomard Gassab mausoleum. This important monument is situated 7 kilometers from the city of Ganja, on the right shore of Ganjachai river. Imamzadeh complex is one the main symbols of Ganja city and important example of medieval architecture of Azerbaijan. At the present time, as one of the most valued places of pilgrimage of the Islamic world, Imamzadeh tomb-complex in Ganja is a sacred place for local population, as well as pilgrims that come from different foreign countries. Imamzadeh mausoleum, situated in one of the ancient scientific and cultural centers - Ganja State History-Culture Reserve, was built in 739, on site of the grave of mevlana Ibrahim. The historic monument of Ganja - Imamzadeh tomb-complex attracts the attention of a number of features from the point of multiculturalism view. Ganja Imamzadeh is an important pilgrimage shrine. This place is visited by thousands of people every year. It should be noted that the number of visitors is increasing every year as well as foreign countries. Interesting fact is that non-Muslims are also among that memorial. The mausoleum, built around the grave of mevlana Ibrahim in the VIII century, was enlarged in the XIV-XVI centuries, and subsidiary buildings around it were erected in the XVII-XVIII centuries. The tomb is the most important part of the Imamzadeh complex. The area of Imamzade complex was included in the property of the Sheykhzamanlis – the descendants of Nizami Ganjavi, the great Azerbaijani poet and philosopher. During several centuries the city grew, flourished and finally turned into one of the key regional centers of economy and culture. At different stages of the history of the capital city of Ganja status while maintaining the traditions of the ancient statehood and independence was of great importance. In spite of numerous destructions suffered through the history, Ganja remains a beautiful city with many ancient sites. Among them are the Big and Small Bridges (XII century), towers, the Friday Mosque, the madrasah, hamams and caravanserais, as well as Imamzadeh complex-a picturesque building with blue domes, constructed as a Mausoleum of Imam Bagir ibn Ibrahim. The historical and architectural complex, built in the XVII century by Sheikh Bahaaddin, is also worth mentioning. It includes Juma Mosque (called Friday or Shah Abbas Mosque), Chekak-Hamam (medieval bath) and a caravanserai.Ganja - an ancient center of urban culture with more than 4000 years history, that situated on the old Great Silk way, is rich with many historical and material-cultural monuments, which have their typical, unique trade and architectural characteristics.

The Royal Text in the History of Abyssinia during the reign of Emperor Amda Seyon (1314-1344): translation and analytic study

2022-05-07T16:36:09+04:00

Researchers divide Ethiopian history into two main eras, the first of which begins in the fourth century AD with the entry of Christianity into Ethiopia during the era of King Ezana (1). The history of this period depends on a group of inscriptions and excavations. Some historical news continues until the end of the fifth century AD, almost until the era of Caleb and his campaigns to southern Arabia, then Ethiopia enters its dark ages, which extended until the middle of the thirteenth century AD, through which we do not receive any documents, manuscripts or inscriptions that tell what happened in those days. The historical period, except for some scattered news about the Agawi dynasty that ruled Ethiopia from the tenth century until the thirteenth century AD.